Xiongnu, the ancestors of the Mongols?
The distinct origins and identities
Zhou Guoqin
The Mongols evolved from China's ancient ethnic groups, but not Xiongnu, with a well documented and continuous historical trajectory.
The history of northern China is marked by the rise and fall of numerous ethnic groups, their legacies fading into the mists of time. This complex and dynamic interplay of peoples renders the study of their origins and interconnections both challenging and controversial within academic circles.
There is a common, yet flawed, historical narrative, which frames the nomadic societies of the northern steppe as a single people with shared ancestry, culture, and language. Proponents of this view often assert that the Xiongnu were the direct ancestors of the Mongols, a claim used to bolster the divisive "North-South confrontation theory," confusing the general public.
The evolution of the Xiongnu
As early as the 7th and 8th centuries BC, the nomadic tribes of the Mongolian Plateau had been engaging in social and economic exchanges with Central Plains peoples. By the 3rd century BC, these interactions had catalyzed the emergence of large tribal confederations, among which the Xiongnu and the Donghu, the latter on the eastern Mongolian steppes, were the most prominent.
The Xiongnu's heartland lay around the Yinshan Mountains and the Ordos Plateau, within the bounds of modern Inner Mongolia. Over time, their influence expanded across the Northern Steppes (present-day Mongolia). The Xiongnu were organized under a hierarchical leadership structure, with the Chanyu at the apex, supported by the Wise Kings of the Left and Right, each governing subordinate tribes. In times of conflict, these tribes united under centralized leadership; during peace, they maintained relative autonomy.
According to the Records of the Grand Historian, the Xiongnu traced their lineage back to the time of the Xia dynasty (c.2070–1600 BC). Under the reign of Chanyu Touman, they coalesced into a formidable tribal alliance. His successor, Modu Chanyu, emerged as a military genius, achieving decisive victories over neighboring groups. Modu subjugated the Donghu, vanquished the Dayuezhi to the west, and annexed territories such as Loufan and Baiyang to the south. Through relentless warfare, the Xiongnu expanded their dominion, commanding an elite cavalry force of over 300,000 warriors and establishing a vast empire stretching eastward to the Liaohe River, westward beyond the Pamirs, southward to the Great Wall, and northward to Lake Baikal.
The Xiongnu's interactions with the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC–AD 25) oscillated between conflict and diplomacy. In 200 BC, Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang, suffered a harrowing siege by the Xiongnu near modern-day Datong in Shanxi Province. This confrontation ultimately led to a fragile peace treaty, with the two powers regarding one another as fraternal states.
Before the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (c. 133 BC), the Western Han Dynasty adopted a strategy of marriage alliances to maintain a tenuous peace with the Xiongnu, dispatching princesses and offering lavish tributes of gold, silk, and cotton fabrics. Despite these diplomatic overtures, Xiongnu incursions into Han border regions persisted, straining relations between the two powers.
The fragile peace unraveled in 133 BC, ushering in a period of intense warfare. In 129 BC, Emperor Wu initiated a four-front military campaign against the Xiongnu. This was followed by large-scale offensives in 121 BC and 119 BC, spearheaded by the brilliant generals Huo Qubing and Wei Qing, whose decisive victories inflicted devastating blows on Xiongnu power.
By 60 BC, internal fractures within the Xiongnu ruling elite precipitated their first major schism. Chanyu Huhanye, leading the Southern Xiongnu, submitted to the Han Dynasty, aligning with the Central Plains polity. Meanwhile, Chanyu Zhizhi maintained the northern royal court on the steppes. Eventually, in 47 BC, Huhanye reunited the Xiongnu and reclaimed overall leadership.
Under his rule, relations with the Han entered a period of amicability, marked by the profound influence of Central Plains culture on Xiongnu society.
However, internal discord resurfaced in year 47, triggering a second split. The Rizhu King, a descendant of Chanyu Huhanye, emerged as leader of the "Southern Xiongnu," while Chanyu Punu assumed control of the "Northern Xiongnu" in the steppes.
The Southern Xiongnu aligned closely with the Eastern Han court, receiving their unwavering support. Over time, they migrated into Han territory, gradually integrating with the Han populace. By the late Eastern Han era (184–220), this process culminated in their intergration with Han and other ethnic groups. During the tumultuous era of the Five Hu (3rd–4th centuries. Hu refers to the five northern ethnic groups in Chinese history: Xiongnu, Xianbei, Jie, Di, and Qiang), the Southern Xiongnu were fully absorbed into the fabric of the Central Plains.
In contrast, the Northern Xiongnu faced a dramatic decline. In year 91, following a crushing defeat by Han forces, the Chanyu retreated to Kangju (one of the Thirty-Six States of the Western Regions, located in modern north Xinjiang and Central Asia). The remnants of the Northern Xiongnu, numbering in the tens of thousands, adopted the name Xianbei and were integrated into the Donghu ethnic lineage, marking the end of their distinct identity.
The evolution of the Mongols
Scholarly interpretations of the Mongols' origins vary, though a predominant consensus traces their lineage to the Donghu people, contemporaries of the Xiongnu. Over centuries, the Mongols evolved through a complex process of integration, notably through the Xianbei and later the Shiwei (an ancient nomadic tribe living in northeastern China).
Historical accounts identify the Mongwu Shiwei, a branch of the Shiwei people, as the direct ancestors of the Mongols. Following the establishment of Genghis Khan's regime, "Mongol" (or "Mongwu") was adopted as the official designation for both the ethnic group and its state.
During the Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties, the Shiwei tribes chiefly inhabited the Argun River basin. The Mongwu Shiwei resided east of the lower Argun River and at the northern extremities of the Xing'an Mountains.
By the 8th century, the Shiwei began a westward expansion across the Mongolian Plateau. They were referred to as the "Tatars" by Turks and Uighurs (the latter are ancestors of the Uygurs). By the 10th century, these Tatar tribes had established themselves in the central Mongolian Plateau, particularly around the Tuul River and Khangai Mountains, forming influential tribal alliances. For the next two centuries, the Tatars maintained tributary and subordinate relations with the Song (960–1279), Liao (907–1125), and Jin (1115–1234) dynasties, with their name frequently appearing in Chinese historical texts.
By this period, the Shiwei-Tatar tribes had spread widely, from the Greater Xing'an Mountains and Kerulen River in the east to the central Mongolian Plateau in the west, and as far south as the Yin Mountains. Their cultural exchanges with neighboring groups were extensive, including Turkic-speaking tribes to the west, the Khitan to the south, and the Han people.
In the 1180s, the ascendancy of Temüjin, leader of the Eastern Mongols, began to reshape the steppe. His unification of the fragmented tribes culminated in 1206 when he declared himself Great Khan under the title "Genghis Khan," founding the Mongol Empire. For the first time, the Mongols emerged as a unified and dominant force on the global stage. In 1271, Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan renamed the Mongol Empire the "Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)," establishing it as a legitimate ruling dynasty in Chinese history.
The Yuan Dynasty represented a pivotal era of cultural synthesis and historical development within China. Though the dynasty eventually fell, the Mongolian ethnic group remained as an integral part of the Chinese nation, evolving over centuries and continuing to contribute to China's rich historical and cultural tapestry.
The Xiongnu and Mongols: distinct origins and identities
The above analysis shows that the Xiongnu and Mongols are fundamentally distinct in their origins, historical trajectories, and ethnic identities.
The Xiongnu represented a tribal confederation active in the northern steppes during the formative period of Chinese history. Their composition was highly heterogeneous, and they had not developed into a "nation" as understood today. Discussions of their "ethnic origins" or "ethnicity" often focus on their ruling elite, such as the Xiongnu Chanyu's core group. However, this leadership and its associated clans were absorbed into the Han, Xianbei, and other ethnic groups during the Han (206 BC–AD 220) and Wei (220–265) periods, leaving no direct to the Donghu lineage or the subsequent Shiwei tribes.
Conversely, the Mongols can trace their distant ancestry to the Donghu, their proximate lineage to the Shiwei, and their emergence as an ethnic entity during the Yuan Dynasty. Unlike the Xiongnu, the Mongols' historical development is well-documented and marked by continuity. While their history reflects the integration of rich cultural legacies from northern frontier groups—including elements of the Xiongnu, Xianbei, and Turks—the adoption of shared linguistic or cultural traits cannot substantiate claims of direct ethnic descent.
Both the Xiongnu and Mongols have left profound legacies in human history, and their respective contributions must be evaluated objectively. Attempts to perpetuate the misconception that the Xiongnu were the direct ancestors of the Mongols, particularly to fabricate a narrative of historical confrontation between the Xiongnu and the Chinese nation, lack scholarly foundation. Such claims undermine the historical unity of China's multi-ethnic civilization and are ultimately untenable.
The views don't necessarily reflect those of DeepChina.
The author is Zhou Guoqin, professor at the Academy of the Community for the Chinese Nation, Dalian Minzu University.
Editor/ Liu Xian
Translator/ Deng Zhiyu
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